Early Human Development
Volume 83, Issue 5 , Pages 279-284 , May 2007

Visual acuity and cognitive outcomes at 4 years of age in a double-blind, randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid-supplemented infant formula

  • Eileen E. Birch

      Affiliations

    • Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, TX, USA
    • Department of Ophthalmology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Retina Foundation of the Southwest, 9900 N. Central Expressway, Suite 400, Dallas, TX 75231, USA. Tel.: +1 214 363 3911; fax: +1 214 363 4538.
  • ,
  • Sharon Garfield

      Affiliations

    • Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, TX, USA
  • ,
  • Yolanda Castañeda

      Affiliations

    • Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, TX, USA
  • ,
  • Dianna Hughbanks-Wheaton

      Affiliations

    • Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, TX, USA
  • ,
  • Ricardo Uauy

      Affiliations

    • INTA, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
  • ,
  • Dennis Hoffman

      Affiliations

    • Retina Foundation of the Southwest, Dallas, TX, USA

,Accepted 26 November 2006.

References 

  1. Giusto N, Pasquare S, Salvador G, Castagnet P, Roque M, Ilincheta de Boschero M. Lipid metabolism in vertebrate retinal rod outer segments. Prog Lipid Res. 2000;39:315–391
  2. Sastry P. Lipids of nervous tissue: composition and metabolism. Prog Lipid Res. 1985;24:69–176
  3. Garey L. Structural development of the visual system of man. Hum Neurobiol. 1984;3:75–80
  4. Huttenlocher P, De Courten C. The development of synapses in striate cortex of man. Hum Neurobiol. 1987;6:1–9
  5. Blakemore C. Mysteries in the making of the cerebral cortex. In:  Bock G,  Cardew G editor. Development of the Cerebral Cortex. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons; 1995;p. 1–20
  6. Dobbing J, Sands J. Comparative aspects of the brain growth spurt. Early Human Dev. 1979;3:79–83
  7. Svennerholm L. Distribution and fatty acid composition of phosphoglycerides in normal human brain. J Lipid Res. 1968;9:570–579
  8. Svennerholm L, Vanier M. The distribution of lipids in the human nervous system. 3. Fatty acid composition of phosphoglycerides of human foetal and infant brain. Brain Res. 1973;50:341–351
  9. Martinez M. Tissue levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids during early human development. J Pediatr. 1992;120:S129–S138
  10. Martinez M, Mougan I. Fatty acid composition of human brain phospholipids during normal development. J Neurochem. 1998;71:2528–2533
  11. Lauritzen L, Hansen H, Jorgensen M, Michaelsen KF. The essentiality of long chain n-3 fatty acids in relation to development and function of the brain and retina. Prog Lipid Res. 2001;40:1–94
  12. Farquharson J, Cockburn F, Patrick W, Jamieson E, Logan R. Infant cerebral cortex phospholipid fatty-acid composition and diet. Lancet. 1992;340:810–813
  13. Makrides M, Neumann M, Byard R, Simmer K, Gibson R. Fatty acid composition of brain, retina, and erythrocytes in breast-fed and formula-fed infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;60:189–194
  14. Birch EE, Birch DG, Hoffman DR, Uauy R. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1992;33:3242–3243
  15. Carlson S, Rhodes P, Rao V, Goldgar D. Effect of fish oil supplementation on the n-3 fatty acid content of red blood cell membranes in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 1987;21:507–510
  16. Carlson S, Ford A, Werkman S, Peeples J, Koo W. Visual acuity and fatty acid status of term infants fed human milk and formulas with and without docosahexaenoate and arachidonate from egg yolk lecithin. Pediatr Res. 1995;39:882–888
  17. Hoffman D, Birch E, Birch D, et al. Impact of early dietary intake and blood lipid composition of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on later visual development. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;31:540–553
  18. Innis SM, Nelson CM, Rioux MF, King DJ. Development of visual acuity in relation to plasma and erythrocyte w-6 and w-3 fatty acids in healthy term gestation infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;60:347–352
  19. Koletzko B, Schmidt E, Bremer H, Haug M, Harzer G. Effects of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on the essential fatty acid status of premature infants. Eur J Paediatr. 1989;148:669–675
  20. Birch E, Garfield S, Hoffman D, Uauy R, Birch D. A randomized controlled trial of early dietary supply of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and mental development in term infants. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:174–181
  21. Willatts P, Forsyth J, DiModugno M, Varma S, Colvin M. Influence of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on infant cognitive function. Lipids. 1998;33:973–980
  22. Willatts P, Forsyth J, DiModugno M, Varma S, Colvin M. Effect of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant formula on problem solving at 10 months of age. Lancet. 1998;352:688–691
  23. Marin M, Rey G, Pedersoli L, Rodrigo M, de Alaniz M. In: Dietary Long-Chain Fatty Acids and Visual Response in Malnourished Nursing Infants. Prostoglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. vol. 63:2000;p. 385–390
  24. Carlson S, Ford A, Werkman S, Peeples J, Koo W. Visual acuity and fatty acid status of term infants fed human milk and formulas with and without docosahexaenoate and arachidonate from egg yolk lecithin. Pediatr Res. 1996;39:882–888
  25. Birch E, Hoffman D, Uauy R, Birch D, Prestidge C. Visual acuity and the essentiality of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid in the diet of term infants. Pediatr Res. 1998;44:201–209
  26. Lucas A, Stafford M, Morley R, et al. Efficacy and safety of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of infant formula milk: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;354:1948–1954
  27. Makrides MMN, Simmer K, Gibson R. A critical appraisal of the role of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on neural indices of term infants: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2000;105:32–38
  28. Auestad N, Monalto M, Hall R, et al. Visual acuity, erythrocyte fatty acid composition, and growth in term infants fed formulas with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for one year. Pediatr Res. 1997;41:1–10
  29. Auestad N, Halter R, Hall R, et al. Growth and development in term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a double-masked, randomized, parallel, prospective, multivariate study. Pediatrics. 2001;108:372–381
  30. Scott D, Janowsky J, Carroll R, Taylor J, Auestad N, Montalto M. Formula supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: are there developmental benefits?. Pediatrics. 1998;102:E59
  31. Jorgensen M, Holmer G, Lund P, Hernell O, Michaelsen K. Effect of formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid on fatty acid status and visual acuity in term infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;26:412–421
  32. Auestad N, Scott D, Janowsky J, et al. Visual, cognitive, and language assessments at 39 months: a follow-up study of children fed formulas containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to 1 year of age. Pediatrics. 2003;112:e177–e183
  33. Holmes JM, Beck RW, Repka MX, et al. The amblyopia treatment study visual acuity testing protocol. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:1345–1353
  34. Moke P, Turpin A, Beck R, et al. Computerized method of visual acuity testing: adaptation of the Amblyopia Treatment Study visual acuity testing protocol for children. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:903–909
  35. Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. A randomized trial of patching regimens for treatment of moderate amblyopia in children. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121:603–611

PII: S0378-3782(06)00303-3

doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.11.003

Early Human Development
Volume 83, Issue 5 , Pages 279-284 , May 2007